Microalgae for CO₂ Biofixation and Biomass Production: A Critical and Comprehensive Review of Mechanisms, Systems, Challenges, and Future Perspectives

Hassan Abid Al Kadim Mjali

Authors

Hassan Abid Al Kadim Mjali Directorate of Education in wasit, Iraq

Keywords:

Microalgae, CO₂ biofixation, SCALE-UP framework, bench-to-business gap, biomass production

Abstract

The rapidly growing atmospheric CO2 concentrations have made effective and efficient carbon capture, utilization and storage (CCUS) technologies evermore imperative. Biological routes that employ microalgae have shown immense potential for CO2 biofixation due to their inherent efficient photosynthesis and fast growth rates, wide environmental range and generation of high value biomass. In contrast to successful advancements made at lab scale, challenges pertaining to technology, energy, economics, and ecology have severely limited large scale industrial cultivation of microalgae for CO2 mitigation. This review proposes a critical and detailed examination of microalgal CO2 biofixation processes, cultivation technologies, industrial constraints and avenues of future work. Mechanisms of microalgal CO2 biofixation such as the Calvin-Benson-Bassham pathway, RuBisCO activity, and carbon concentrating mechanisms (CCMs) along with different open raceway ponds, photobioreactors, and combined cultivating techniques were thoroughly investigated. The review highlights the major bottlenecks such as reduction in productivity under outdoor cultivation, high energy input for the system and harvesting as well as biological security issues associated with genetically modified strains (which cause a 'bench-to-business' transition gap). A seven-pillar conceptual framework (SCALE-UP) that incorporates biological resistance, optimized cultivation, energy efficient harvesting, efficient utilization of all the generated biomass and resources and the establishment of benchmarks to measure industrial productivity, was then introduced to overcome the above-mentioned bottlenecks. Specific research strategies have been proposed for sustainable industrial application of microalgal CO2 biofixation techniques at industrial level and in economically feasible manner.

References

D. V. Almeida et al., “The ‘greening’ of empire: The European Green Deal as the EU first agenda,” Political Geography, vol. 105, p. 102925, 2023.

E. Hanson, C. Nwakile, and V. O. Hammed, “Carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) technologies: Evaluating the effectiveness of advanced CCUS solutions for reducing CO2 emissions,” Results in Surfaces and Interfaces, vol. 18, p. 100381, 2025.

F. O. Ochedi, D. Liu, J. Yu, A. Hussain, and Y. Liu, “Photocatalytic, electrocatalytic and photoelectrocatalytic conversion of carbon dioxide: a review,” Environ Chem Lett, vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 941–967, Apr. 2021, doi: 10.1007/s10311-020-01131-5.

K. U. Devi, G. Swapna, and K. Suman, “Bio-sequestration of CO2 – Potential and Challenges,” in Carbon Capture, Storage and Utilization, CRC Press, 2018.

G. M. da Rosa, M. G. de Morais, and J. A. V. Costa, “Green alga cultivation with monoethanolamine: Evaluation of CO2 fixation and macromolecule production,” Bioresource Technology, vol. 261, pp. 206–212, Aug. 2018, doi: 10.1016/j.biortech.2018.04.007.

A. Detheridge, L. J. Hosking, H. R. Thomas, V. Sarhosis, D. Gwynn-Jones, and J. Scullion, “Deep seam and minesoil carbon sequestration potential of the South Wales Coalfield, UK,” Journal of environmental management, vol. 248, p. 109325, 2019.

S. S. Salek, R. Kleerebezem, H. M. Jonkers, G. Witkamp, and M. C. Van Loosdrecht, “Mineral CO2 sequestration by environmental biotechnological processes,” Trends in biotechnology, vol. 31, no. 3, pp. 139–146, 2013.

K. Sorimachi, “Innovative method for CO2 fixation and storage,” Scientific Reports, vol. 12, no. 1, p. 1694, 2022.

F. Rossi, E. J. Olguín, L. Diels, and R. De Philippis, “Microbial fixation of CO2 in water bodies and in drylands to combat climate change, soil loss and desertification,” New biotechnology, vol. 32, no. 1, pp. 109–120, 2015.

M. K. Lam, K. T. Lee, and A. R. Mohamed, “Current status and challenges on microalgae-based carbon capture,” International Journal of Greenhouse gas control, vol. 10, pp. 456–469, 2012.

S. P. Singh and P. Singh, “Effect of CO2 concentration on algal growth: A review,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 38, pp. 172–179, 2014.

Z. Huang et al., “Huang, Zhigang, et al. ‘Valorisation of microalgae residues after lipid extraction: Pyrolysis characteristics for biofuel production.’ Biochemical Engineering Journal 179 (2022): 108330.‏,” Biochemical Engineering Journal, vol. 179, p. 108330, 2022.

L. Yahya, R. Harun, and L. C. Abdullah, “Screening of native microalgae species for carbon fixation at the vicinity of Malaysian coal-fired power plant,” Scientific reports, vol. 10, no. 1, p. 22355, 2020.

Y. K. Dasan et al., “Cultivation of Chlorella vulgaris using sequential-flow bubble column photobioreactor: a stress-inducing strategy for lipid accumulation and carbon dioxide fixation,” Journal of CO2 Utilization, vol. 41, p. 101226, 2020.

M. Premaratne, V. C. Liyanaarachchi, G. K. S. H. Nishshanka, P. H. V. Nimarshana, and T. U. Ariyadasa, “Nitrogen-limited cultivation of locally isolated Desmodesmus sp. for sequestration of CO2 from simulated cement flue gas and generation of feedstock for biofuel production,” Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, vol. 9, no. 4, p. 105765, 2021.

G. T. Ding et al., “Phycoremediation of palm oil mill effluent (POME) and CO2 fixation by locally isolated microalgae: Chlorella sorokiniana UKM2, Coelastrella sp. UKM4 and Chlorella pyrenoidosa UKM7,” Journal of Water Process Engineering, vol. 35, p. 101202, 2020.

X. You, L. Yang, X. Zhou, and Y. Zhang, “Sustainability and carbon neutrality trends for microalgae-based wastewater treatment: a review,” Environmental Research, vol. 209, p. 112860, 2022.

M. J. Raeesossadati, H. Ahmadzadeh, M. P. McHenry, and N. R. Moheimani, “CO2 bioremediation by microalgae in photobioreactors: Impacts of biomass and CO2 concentrations, light, and temperature,” Algal Research, vol. 6, pp. 78–85, 2014.

M. D. Guiry, “HOW MANY SPECIES OF ALGAE ARE THERE?,” Journal of Phycology, vol. 48, no. 5, pp. 1057–1063, Oct. 2012, doi: 10.1111/j.1529-8817.2012.01222.x.

L. Barsanti and P. Gualtieri, Algae: anatomy, biochemistry, and biotechnology. CRC press, 2022. Accessed: May 15, 2026. [Online]. Available: https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.1201/9781003187707/algae-paolo-gualtieri-laura-barsanti

B. D. Rae, B. M. Long, M. R. Badger, and G. D. Price, “Functions, Compositions, and Evolution of the Two Types of Carboxysomes: Polyhedral Microcompartments That Facilitate CO2 Fixation in Cyanobacteria and Some Proteobacteria,” Microbiol Mol Biol Rev, vol. 77, no. 3, pp. 357–379, Sep. 2013, doi: 10.1128/MMBR.00061-12.

D. Righetti, M. Vogt, N. Gruber, A. Psomas, and N. E. Zimmermann, “Global pattern of phytoplankton diversity driven by temperature and environmental variability,” Sci. Adv., vol. 5, no. 5, p. eaau6253, May 2019, doi: 10.1126/sciadv.aau6253.

L. Ramanna, I. Rawat, and F. Bux, “Light enhancement strategies improve microalgal biomass productivity,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 80, pp. 765–773, 2017.

S.-E. Shin et al., “Isolation, phenotypic characterization and genome wide analysis of a Chlamydomonas reinhardtii strain naturally modified under laboratory conditions: towards enhanced microalgal biomass and lipid production for biofuels,” Biotechnol Biofuels, vol. 10, no. 1, p. 308, Dec. 2017, doi: 10.1186/s13068-017-1000-0.

Y. Maltsev, K. Maltseva, M. Kulikovskiy, and S. Maltseva, “Influence of light conditions on microalgae growth and content of lipids, carotenoids, and fatty acid composition,” Biology, vol. 10, no. 10, p. 1060, 2021.

J. R. Reinfelder, “Carbon concentrating mechanisms in eukaryotic marine phytoplankton,” Annual review of marine science, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 291–315, 2011.

Y. Sun et al., “Integrating planar waveguides doped with light scattering nanoparticles into a flat-plate photobioreactor to improve light distribution and microalgae growth,” Bioresource Technology, vol. 220, pp. 215–224, 2016.

S. K. Singh, S. Sundaram, and K. Kishor, “Carbon-Concentrating Mechanism,” in Photosynthetic Microorganisms: Mechanism For Carbon Concentration, S. K. Singh, S. Sundaram, and K. Kishor, Eds., Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2014, pp. 5–38. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-09123-5_2.

E. V. Kupriyanova, N. A. Pronina, and D. A. Los, “Adapting from Low to High: An Update to CO2-Concentrating Mechanisms of Cyanobacteria and Microalgae,” Plants, vol. 12, no. 7, p. 1569, Jan. 2023, doi: 10.3390/plants12071569.

N. R. Boyle and J. A. Morgan, “Computation of metabolic fluxes and efficiencies for biological carbon dioxide fixation,” Metabolic engineering, vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 150–158, 2011.

M. Ludwig, J. Hartwell, C. A. Raines, and A. J. Simkin, “The Calvin-Benson-Bassham cycle in C4 and Crassulacean acid metabolism species,” Seminars in Cell & Developmental Biology, vol. 155, pp. 10–22, Mar. 2024, doi: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2023.07.013.

M. T. Lin, A. Occhialini, P. J. Andralojc, M. A. Parry, and M. R. Hanson, “A faster Rubisco with potential to increase photosynthesis in crops,” Nature, vol. 513, no. 7519, pp. 547–550, 2014.

E. A. Quadrelli, G. Centi, J. Duplan, and S. Perathoner, “Carbon Dioxide Recycling: Emerging Large‐Scale Technologies with Industrial Potential,” ChemSusChem, vol. 4, no. 9, pp. 1194–1215, Sep. 2011, doi: 10.1002/cssc.201100473.

P. Priyadharsini et al., “Genetic improvement of microalgae for enhanced carbon dioxide sequestration and enriched biomass productivity: review on CO2 bio-fixation pathways modifications,” Algal Research, vol. 66, p. 102810, 2022.

J. W. Bouvier et al., “Rubisco adaptation is more limited by phylogenetic constraint than by catalytic trade-off,” Molecular Biology and Evolution, vol. 38, no. 7, pp. 2880–2896, 2021.

Y. Yamaoka, D. Petroutsos, S. Je, T. Yamano, and Y. Li-Beisson, “Light, CO2, and carbon storage in microalgae,” Current opinion in plant biology, vol. 84, p. 102696, 2025.

L. Zuliani et al., “Interplay between CO2 and light governs carbon partitioning in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii,” Physiologia Plantarum, vol. 176, no. 6, p. e14630, 2024.

A. Al-Dailami, I. Koji, I. Ahmad, and M. Goto, “Potential of photobioreactors (PBRs) in cultivation of microalgae,” J Adv Res Appl Sci Eng Technol, vol. 27, no. 1, pp. 32–44, 2022.

M. Caia, O. Bernard, and Q. Béchet, “Optimizing CO2 transfer in algal open ponds,” Algal Research, vol. 35, pp. 530–538, Nov. 2018, doi: 10.1016/j.algal.2018.09.009.

Q. Zhang et al., “Sustainable microalgae cultivation: A comprehensive review of open and enclosed systems for biofuel and high value compound production,” E3S Web Conf., vol. 577, p. 01008, 2024, doi: 10.1051/e3sconf/202457701008.

J. Pruvost, F. Le Borgne, A. Artu, J.-F. Cornet, and J. Legrand, “Industrial Photobioreactors and Scale-Up Concepts,” in Advances in Chemical Engineering, vol. 48, Elsevier, 2016, pp. 257–310. doi: 10.1016/bs.ache.2015.11.002.

K. J. M. Mulders, P. P. Lamers, D. E. Martens, and R. H. Wijffels, “Phototrophic pigment production with microalgae: biological constraints and opportunities”, doi: 10.1111/jpy.12173.

Y. Maltsev, K. Maltseva, M. Kulikovskiy, and S. Maltseva, “Influence of Light Conditions on Microalgae Growth and Content of Lipids, Carotenoids, and Fatty Acid Composition,” Biology, vol. 10, no. 10, p. 1060, Oct. 2021, doi: 10.3390/biology10101060.

P. F. Del Olmo, F. G. Acién, and J. M. Fernández-Sevilla, “Analysis of productivity in raceway photobioreactor using computational fluid dynamics particle tracking coupled to a dynamic photosynthesis model,” Bioresource technology, vol. 334, p. 125226, 2021.

M. P. Rai, T. Gautom, and N. Sharma, “Effect of salinity, pH, light intensity on growth and lipid production of microalgae for bioenergy application,” OnLine Journal of Biological Sciences, vol. 15, no. 4, p. 260, 2015.

P. Ratomski and M. Hawrot-Paw, “Production of Chlorella vulgaris biomass in tubular photobioreactors during different culture conditions,” Applied Sciences, vol. 11, no. 7, p. 3106, 2021.

B. Guieysse and M. Plouviez, “Microalgae cultivation: Closing the yield gap from laboratory to field scale,” Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology, vol. 12, p. 1359755, 2024.

M. Plouviez, Y. Chisti, and B. Guieysse, “Practical guide to algal biomass production: What can we learn from past successes and failures?,” 3rd Generation Biofuels, pp. 979–1000, 2022.

B. Vázquez-Romero, J. A. Perales, H. Pereira, M. Barbosa, and J. Ruiz, “Techno-economic assessment of microalgae production, harvesting and drying for food, feed, cosmetics, and agriculture,” Science of The Total Environment, vol. 837, p. 155742, 2022.

A. Walia, “Economic feasibility of microalgae as a biological carbon capture solution: financial comparison with traditional chemical carbon capture technologies,” 2024, Accessed: May 16, 2026. [Online]. Available: https://www.theseus.fi/handle/10024/862496

G. Perin, F. Gambaro, and T. Morosinotto, “Knowledge of regulation of photosynthesis in outdoor microalgae cultures is essential for the optimization of biomass productivity,” Frontiers in plant science, vol. 13, p. 846496, 2022.

P. Deepa, K. Sowndhararajan, and S. Kim, “A Review of the Harvesting Techniques of Microalgae,” Water, vol. 15, no. 17, p. 3074, Jan. 2023, doi: 10.3390/w15173074.

A. Sreenikethanam, S. Raj, P. Gugulothu, and A. K. Bajhaiya, “Genetic engineering of microalgae for secondary metabolite production: Recent developments, challenges, and future prospects,” Frontiers in bioengineering and biotechnology, vol. 10, p. 836056, 2022.

G. Kumar, A. Shekh, S. Jakhu, Y. Sharma, R. Kapoor, and T. R. Sharma, “Bioengineering of microalgae: recent advances, perspectives, and regulatory challenges for industrial application,” Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology, vol. 8, p. 914, 2020.

S. Gutiérrez and K. J. Lauersen, “Gene delivery technologies with applications in microalgal genetic engineering,” Biology, vol. 10, no. 4, p. 265, 2021.

S. Y. Teng, G. Y. Yew, K. Sukačová, P. L. Show, V. Máša, and J.-S. Chang, “Microalgae with artificial intelligence: A digitalized perspective on genetics, systems and products,” Biotechnology Advances, vol. 44, p. 107631, Nov. 2020, doi: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2020.107631.

J. Masojídek et al., “Photosynthesis Monitoring in Microalgae Cultures Grown on Municipal Wastewater as a Nutrient Source in Large-Scale Outdoor Bioreactors,” Biology, vol. 11, no. 10, p. 1380, Oct. 2022, doi: 10.3390/biology11101380.

Y. Su, M. Xu, S. Brynjólfsson, and W. Fu, “Physiological and molecular insights into adaptive evolution of the marine model diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum under low-pH stress,” Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 412, p. 137297, Aug. 2023, doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.137297.

P. S. Goh et al., “Microalgae-Enabled Wastewater Remediation and Nutrient Recovery through Membrane Photobioreactors: Recent Achievements and Future Perspective,” Membranes, vol. 12, no. 11, p. 1094, Nov. 2022, doi: 10.3390/membranes12111094.

M. Nayak, W. I. Suh, B. Lee, and Y. K. Chang, “Enhanced carbon utilization efficiency and FAME production of Chlorella sp. HS2 through combined supplementation of bicarbonate and carbon dioxide,” Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 156, pp. 45–52, Jan. 2018, doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2017.11.002.

A. P. Peter et al., “Microalgae for biofuels, wastewater treatment and environmental monitoring,” Environ Chem Lett, vol. 19, no. 4, pp. 2891–2904, Aug. 2021, doi: 10.1007/s10311-021-01219-6.

B. R. Kumar et al., “A state of the art review on the cultivation of algae for energy and other valuable products: Application, challenges, and opportunities,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 138, p. 110649, 2021, doi: 10.1016/J.RSER.2020.110649.

R. Abate, Y.-S. Oon, Y.-L. Oon, and Y. Bi, “Microalgae-bacteria nexus for environmental remediation and renewable energy resources: Advances, mechanisms and biotechnological applications,” Heliyon, vol. 10, no. 10, p. e31170, May 2024, doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e31170.

N. Fakhimi, D. Gonzalez-Ballester, E. Fernández, A. Galván, and A. Dubini, “Algae-Bacteria Consortia as a Strategy to Enhance H2 Production,” Cells, vol. 9, no. 6, p. 1353, Jun. 2020, doi: 10.3390/cells9061353.

S. Ban, W. Lin, F. Wu, and J. Luo, “Algal-bacterial cooperation improves algal photolysis-mediated hydrogen production,” Bioresource Technology, vol. 251, pp. 350–357, Mar. 2018, doi: 10.1016/j.biortech.2017.12.072.

R. G. Saratale et al., “Bioelectrochemical systems using microalgae – A concise research update,” Chemosphere, vol. 177, pp. 35–43, Jun. 2017, doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.02.132.

Z. Yang, H. Pei, Q. Hou, L. Jiang, L. Zhang, and C. Nie, “Algal biofilm-assisted microbial fuel cell to enhance domestic wastewater treatment: Nutrient, organics removal and bioenergy production,” Chemical Engineering Journal, vol. 332, pp. 277–285, Jan. 2018, doi: 10.1016/j.cej.2017.09.096.

L. Zou, F. Zhu, Z. Long, and Y. Huang, “Bacterial extracellular electron transfer: a powerful route to the green biosynthesis of inorganic nanomaterials for multifunctional applications,” J Nanobiotechnol, vol. 19, no. 1, p. 120, Apr. 2021, doi: 10.1186/s12951-021-00868-7.

G. Venkata Subhash, R. Chandra, and S. Venkata Mohan, “Microalgae mediated bio-electrocatalytic fuel cell facilitates bioelectricity generation through oxygenic photomixotrophic mechanism,” Bioresource Technology, vol. 136, pp. 644–653, May 2013, doi: 10.1016/j.biortech.2013.02.035.

A. B. Rashid and M. A. K. Kausik, “AI revolutionizing industries worldwide: A comprehensive overview of its diverse applications,” Hybrid Advances, vol. 7, p. 100277, Dec. 2024, doi: 10.1016/j.hybadv.2024.100277.

H. P. de C. Junior, L. N. da G. Pantoja, P. J. S. Leder, E. M. de Oliveira, C. B. R. dos Santos, and V. H. G. Sales, “Applications of artificial intelligence in microalgae cultivation optimization: a systematic review and gap analysis,” Cuadernos de Educación y Desarrollo, vol. 17, no. 6, pp. e8733–e8733, Jun. 2025, doi: 10.55905/cuadv17n6-117.

W. A. Jensen, “Response Surface Methodology: Process and Product Optimization Using Designed Experiments 4th edition,” Journal of Quality Technology, vol. 49, no. 2, pp. 186–188, Apr. 2017, doi: 10.1080/00224065.2017.11917988.